[PEC] Ethics Theories

Ethics Theories

Contents

• Why ethics theories
  • To describe what is ethics and ethics theories
  • To discuss some common approaches to practical ethics
• Insight into ethics theories
  • To describe some of the main concepts related to ethics theories
    • Relativism
    • Divine Command Theory
    • Ethical Egoism
    • Social Contract Theory
  • To describe the main types of ethics theories
  • To differentiate between different ethics theories and to use them to build arguments on ethical issues

Society, Morality and Ethics

• Society is an association of people organized under a system of rules designed to advance the good of its members over time.
• Morality is a set of rules of conduct describing what people ought and ought not to do in various situation.
• Ethics is the philosophical study of morality and a rational examination into people’s moral belief and behaviour.

Scope of Ethics and Ethics Theories

Ethics is focused on the voluntary and moral choice people make when they must make decisions and choose between two or more alternative actions.
Ethics is rational, systematic analysis of conduct and reasoning about the benefits and harm that conduct can cause to other people.
An ethics theory is useful if it allows its proponents to examine moral problems, reach conclusions and defend the conclusions using logical and persuasive arguments in front of a sceptical yet open-minded audience.

Ethical Theories: Relativism

Relativism is the theory that there are no universal moral norms of right and wrong.
Subjective Relativism is the theory that each person decides ‘right’ and ‘wrong’ for himself or herself. Popular expression: “What is right for you may not be right for me”.
Cultural Relativism is the ethical theory that meaning of ‘right’ and ‘wrong’ rests with(寄托于) a society’s moral guidelines and vary from place to place and from time to time.

Subjective Relativism

Pros

• Well-meaning and intelligent people can have totally opposite opinions about moral issues.
• Ethical debates are disagreeable and pointless, never reaching an argument.

Cons

• No sharp line between doing what you think is right and doing what you want
• No moral distinction between actions of different people(since there is no firm reference point)
• Subjective relativism is not equal to tolerance
• Tolerance allows individuals in a pluralistic(多元的) society to live in harmony. What is some people decide to be intolerant.
• Allows people to make decision based on means other than reason, e.g. rolling a dice

Cultural Relativism

Pros

• Different social context demand different moral guidelines.
• It is arrogant for one society to judge another.

Cons

• No clear mechanisms for establishing what the moral guidelines are for a particular culture.
• Individuals may do it by induction -incomplete and unreliable.
• There may not be clearly established norms due to disagreement among groups.
• No framework for reconciliation between cultures in conflict.
• Existence of many cultural practices does not imply that any is acceptable.

Ethical Theories: Divine Command Theory

Good actions are those aligned with the will of God. Bad actions are those contrary to the will of God.
Use Holy books as moral decision making guides.

Pros

• God is all-good and all-knowing
• God is the ultimate authority we owe obedience(顺从) to our creator.

Cons

• Based on obedience. Not reason.
• There are many Holy books and many disagree.
• Multicultural societies are unlikely to adopt a religion based morality.
• Holy books do not address all the moral problems.

Ethical Theories: Ethical Egoism(利己主义)

Each person should focus exclusively on his or her self interest. Morally right actions for a person is the action that provide the maximum long-term benefit for the person.

Pros

• It is a rational theory. We are naturally inclined to do what is best for ourselves.
• Better to let people take care of themselves-- they know better what they want and need.
• Communities benefit from individual who put their well-being first, often make environment better for others.
• Other moral principles are based on self-interest. (e.g. ‘do not break a promise’)

Cons

• Easy moral philosophy; may not be the best.
• We do know a lot about what is good for someone else. A self-interested focus can lead to immoral behaviour.
• Other moral principles are superior to the principle of self-interest.
• People who take the good of others into account live happier lives.

Ethical Theories: Social Contract Theory

Morality consists in rules, governing how people are to treat one another, that rational people will agree to accept for their mutual benefit, on the condition that others follow those rules as well.

Social Contract Concepts & Ideas

Critical problem facing the society is finding a form of association that guarantees everybody their safety and property, yet enables each person to remain free.
There is a close correspondence between RIGHTS and DUTIES
E.g., the right to life means everyone’s duty to protect life.
Negative right means that one cannot interfere in exercising(执行) right by another person. E.g., the right of free expression
Positive right obligates others to do something on one’s behalf. e.g., free education. The society must reserve resources to provide/support that right.

Principles of Justice

In society there is potential harm from concentrated wealth and power.

John Rawl’s Principles of Justice

1. Each person may claim rights and liberties so long as these claims are consistent with everyone else having the same rights and liberties.
2. Any social and economic inequality must satisfy two conditions:
   a) Inequality is associated with positions in society that everyone has a fair and equal opportunity to assume.
   b) Inequality must be to the greatest benefit of the least-advantaged members of society (the difference principle)

Obligations vs Consequences

• Deontology(Kantianism) - actions guided and rationally explained by rights, duty and obligations(regardless of whether consequences are good or bad)
• Utilitarianism - actions are guided by the type of consequences (and not by rights, duty and obligations), and maximising happiness or social utility.
• 

Consequentialism

Consequences of an action makes the action good or bad(not the motivation behind the action)

Utilitarianism

Right decision is the one that cause the most happiness. Happiness is the pleasure and the absence of pain. Unhappiness means pain and absence of pleasure.
Act Utilitarianism: Determine whether or not the action taken maximizes happiness in comparison to the other options.
Rule Utilitarianism: Determine whether or not the action taken compiles with the set rules. E.g., do not kill, do not cause pain…

Deontological ethics theory

Focus on will, rights, duties, obligations, rules. Some rules must be followed, even if they result in a bad outcome. The only good is good will. Categorical imperative is a rule that must be followed.

Two formulations of categorical imperative

Universal Law of Nature : Must act only according to maxims(principles) that could be adopted as universal laws.
End in itself: Treat humans, both yourself and others, as ends in themselves and never as a means to an end.
I want to further explain end in itself by the explanation of the scenario: